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TitleBatch Process Fisher
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Table of Contents
                            1818_fm
	Front Matter
		Dedication
		Foreword
		Acknowledgments
		About the Author
		About the Book
	Figures and Tables
	Preface
	Table of Contents
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_bib
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_pref
	Front Matter
	Preface
	Table of Contents
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_toc
	Front Matter
		Dedication
		Foreword
		Acknowledgments
		About the Author
		About the Book
	Figures and Tables
	Preface
	Table of Contents
	1. Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
		1.1 Manufacturing
			1.1.1 Process
			1.1.2 Other Process Topics
		1.2 Process Classification
			1.2.1 Blasting Cap Plant
			1.2.2 Characterizing the Processes in Blasting Cap Plant
			1.2.3 Other Process Examples
		1.3 Process Properties
			1.3.1 Properties for Process Classification
		1.4 Batch Process Definition
			1.4.1 Batch Process
			1.4.2 Standard Definition
			1.4.3 Semi-Batch Process
		1.5 Auxiliary Processes
		1.6 Process Boundaries
		1.7 Summary
	2. Introduction to Process Design and Construction
	2.1 Initial Steps
		2.2 Process Flow Diagram
		2.3 Analysis
		2.4 Piping & Instrument Diagram
		2.5 Loop Sheets
		2.6 Example of Process Design and Construction
			2.6.1 Process Flow Diagram
			2.6.2 Batch Design
			2.6.3 Construction
		2.7 Modular Design
			2.7.1 Pressure Control Example
			2.7.2 Function Blocks
		2.8 Summary
	3. Introduction to Process Control
		3.1 Types of Control
			3.1.1 Regulatory
			3.1.2 Discrete Control
			3.1.3 Sequential Control
		3.2 Constraint Control
			3.2.1 Alarms
			3.2.2 Overrides
			3.2.3 Interlocks
			3.2.4 Interlock Variations
		3.3 Summary
	4. Controlled Equipment
		4.1 Introduction to Controlled Equipment
		4.2 The Role of Humans in Process Control
		4.3 Process Equipment
		4.4 Controlled Process Equipment
		4.5 Examples of Controlled Equipment
			4.5.1 Batch Reactor
			4.5.2 Associated Reactor Control
			4.5.3 Agitator
			4.5.4 Bioreactor
			4.5.5 Mobile Reactor
			4.5.6 Mixer
			4.5.7 Transport Header
			4.5.8 Heat Exchanger
			4.5.9 Distillation Column
			4.5.10 Centrifuge
		4.6 Common Equipment
		4.7 Summary
	5. Recipes
		5.1 Definitions
		5.2 NAMUR
		5.3 Recipes
			5.3.1 Evolution of Recipes
			5.3.2 Changing from Drums to Digital Computers
			5.3.3 Modular Programming
			5.3.4 Separating Recipe and Equipment Programming
		5.4 Summary
	6. 88 Physical Models
		6.1 Modeling
			6.1.1 Models in 88.01
		6.2 Batch Processes and Equipment in 88.01
			6.2.1 Batch Processes
			6.2.2 Physical Model
			6.2.3 Process Cell Classification
		6.3 Other Physical Models
			6.3.1 Plant Physical Model
			6.3.2 Enterprise Model
		6.4 Control in the Physical Model
			6.4.1 Process Control Physical Model
			6.4.2 The Control Part of Controlled Equipment
			6.4.3 Abstract Communication Problem
			6.4.4 Control Communications Models
		6.5 Summary
	7. 88 Batch Control Concepts, Part 1
		7.1 Structure for Batch Control
			7.1.1 Basic Control
			7.1.2 Procedural Control
			7.1.3 Coordination Control
		7.2 Equipment Entities
			7.2.1 Relationship Model
			7.2.2 Control in Equipment Entities
			7.2.3 Structuring Equipment Entities
		7.3 Summary
	8. 88 Batch Control Concepts, Part 2
		8.1 Recipes
			8.1.1 Recipe Types
			8.1.2 Recipe Contents
			8.1.3 Recipe-Equipment Relationship
			8.1.4 Recipe Transportability
		8.2 Summary
	9. 88 Batch Control Concepts, Part 3
		9.1 Production Plans and Schedules
		9.2 Production Information
			9.2.1 Batch-Specific Information
			9.2.2 Common Information
			9.2.3 Batch History
			9.2.4 Batch Reports
		9.3 Allocation and Arbitration
			9.3.1 Allocation
			9.3.2 Arbitration
		9.4 Modes and States
			9.4.1 Modes
			9.4.2 States
		9.5 Exception Handling
		9.6 Summary
	10. 88 Perspective and Review
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Before SP88
			10.2.1 Purdue Workshop WG4
			10.2.2 NAMUR
			10.2.3 Batch Control Systems
			10.2.4 Computer Integrated Manufacturing
			10.2.5 Purdue Reference Model
		10.3 During SP88
			10.3.1 The Equipment
			10.3.2 The Procedure
			10.3.3 The Formula
			10.3.4 The Recipe
			10.3.5 Production Plans and Schedules
			10.3.6 Production Information
			10.3.7 Arbitration and Allocation
			10.3.8 Modes and States
			10.3.9 Exception Handling
		10.4 Summary
	11. 88 Control Activities and Functions, Part 1
		11.1 Control Activities
			11.1.1 Control Activity Model
			11.1.2 Information Handling
			11.1.3 Process and Control Engineering
		11.2 Recipe Management
			11.2.1 Manage General Recipes
			11.2.2 Define General Recipe Procedural Elements
			11.2.3 Manage Site Recipes
			11.2.4 Manage Master Recipes
			11.2.5 Define Master Recipe Procedural Elements
		11.3 Production Planning and Scheduling
		11.4 Production Information Management
			11.4.1 Receiving and Storing Batch History Information
			11.4.2 Manipulating Historical Data
			11.4.3 Producing Batch Reports
		11.5 Summary
	12. 88 Control Activities and Functions, Part 2
		12.1 Process Management
			12.1.1 Manage Batches
			12.1.2 Manage Process Cell Resources
			12.1.3 Collect Batch and Process Information
		12.2 Unit Supervision
			12.2.1 Acquire and Execute Procedural Elements
			12.2.2 Manage Unit Resources
			12.2.3 Collect Batch and Unit Information
		12.3 Process Control
			12.3.1 Execute Equipment Phases
			12.3.2 Execute Basic Control
			12.3.3 Collect Data
		12.4 Personnel and Environmental Protection
		12.5 Summary
	13. 88 Definitions
		13.1 Definitions
		13.2 Other Definitions
		13.3 Summary
	14. Further 88 Clarifications
		14.1 Definitions
		14.2 Physical Model
			14.2.1 Modules Revisited
		14.3 Batch Control Concepts
			14.3.1 Modules and Phases
			14.3.2 Equipment Entities and the Purdue Reference Model
			14.3.3 Exception Handling
			14.3.4 Modes and States
			14.3.5 Recipe Operations
			14.3.6 Alternative to Unit Procedures
			14.3.7 The Agitator Problem
			14.3.8 The Common Valve Problem
		14.4 Batch Control Activities
			14.4.1 Recipe Translation
			14.4.2 Executing Procedural Elements
			14.4.3 Recipe Computations
			14.4.4 Operator Interaction
		14.5 Procedure Function Charts
		14.6 A Word About Control Systems
			14.6.1 Data Owner
			14.6.2 Programming Languages
			14.6.3 Displays
		14.7 Summary
	15. Generic 88 Implementation
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Designing Batch Process Control
			15.2.1 Know Process Design
			15.2.2 Know How to Operate
			15.2.3 Know Modules, Phases
			15.2.4 Know Normal Operations
			15.2.5 Know Exceptions
			15.2.6 Know All There Is to Know
		15.3 Summary
	16. Role of 95 and Other Things
		16.1 Joining 95 and 88
			16.1.1 Interfaces
			16.1.2 Missing Interfaces
		16.2 The Role of STEP
		16.3 Expanding the Scope of 88
			16.3.1 Why Expand 88
			16.3.2 Features of 88
			16.3.3 Back to 95
		16.4 Fieldbus
			16.4.1 History
			16.4.2 Future for Batch Control
			16.4.3 Control in the Field
			16.4.4 User-Defined Function Blocks
		16.5 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_01
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	1. Introduction to Manufacturing Processes
		1.1 Manufacturing
			1.1.1 Process
			1.1.2 Other Process Topics
		1.2 Process Classification
			1.2.1 Blasting Cap Plant
			1.2.2 Characterizing the Processes in Blasting Cap Plant
			1.2.3 Other Process Examples
		1.3 Process Properties
			1.3.1 Properties for Process Classification
		1.4 Batch Process Definition
			1.4.1 Batch Process
			1.4.2 Standard Definition
			1.4.3 Semi-Batch Process
		1.5 Auxiliary Processes
		1.6 Process Boundaries
		1.7 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_02
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	2. Introduction to Process Design and Construction
		2.1 Initial Steps
		2.2 Process Flow Diagram
		2.3 Analysis
		2.4 Piping & Instrument Diagram
		2.5 Loop Sheets
		2.6 Example of Process Design and Construction
			2.6.1 Process Flow Diagram
			2.6.2 Batch Design
			2.6.3 Construction
		2.7 Modular Design
			2.7.1 Pressure Control Example
			2.7.2 Function Blocks
		2.8 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_03
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	3. Introduction to Process Control
		3.1 Types of Control
			3.1.1 Regulatory
			3.1.2 Discrete Control
			3.1.3 Sequential Control
		3.2 Constraint Control
			3.2.1 Alarms
			3.2.2 Overrides
			3.2.3 Interlocks
			3.2.4 Interlock Variations
		3.3 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_04
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	4. Controlled Equipment
		4.1 Introduction to Controlled Equipment
		4.2 The Role of Humans in Process Control
		4.3 Process Equipment
		4.4 Controlled Process Equipment
		4.5 Examples of Controlled Equipment
			4.5.1 Batch Reactor
			4.5.2 Associated Reactor Control
			4.5.3 Agitator
			4.5.4 Bioreactor
			4.5.5 Mobile Reactor
			4.5.6 Mixer
			4.5.7 Transport Header
			4.5.8 Heat Exchanger
			4.5.9 Distillation Column
			4.5.10 Centrifuge
		4.6 Common Equipment
		4.7 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_05
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	5. Recipes
		5.1 Definitions
		5.2 NAMUR
		5.3 Recipes
			5.3.1 Evolution of Recipes
			5.3.2 Changing from Drums to Digital Computers
			5.3.3 Modular Programming
			5.3.4 Separating Recipe and Equipment Programming
		5.4 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_06
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	6. 88 Physical Models
		6.1 Modeling
			6.1.1 Models in 88.01
		6.2 Batch Processes and Equipment in 88.01
			6.2.1 Batch Processes
			6.2.2 Physical Model
			6.2.3 Process Cell Classification
		6.3 Other Physical Models
			6.3.1 Plant Physical Model
			6.3.2 Enterprise Model
		6.4 Control in the Physical Model
			6.4.1 Process Control Physical Model
			6.4.2 The Control Part of Controlled Equipment
			6.4.3 Abstract Communication Problem
			6.4.4 Control Communications Models
		6.5 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_07
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	7. 88 Batch Control Concepts, Part 1
		7.1 Structure for Batch Control
			7.1.1 Basic Control
			7.1.2 Procedural Control
			7.1.3 Coordination Control
		7.2 Equipment Entities
			7.2.1 Relationship Model
			7.2.2 Control in Equipment Entities
			7.2.3 Structuring Equipment Entities
		7.3 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_08
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	8. 88 Batch Control Concepts, Part 2
		8.1 Recipes
			8.1.1 Recipe Types
			8.1.2 Recipe Contents
			8.1.3 Recipe-Equipment Relationship
			8.1.4 Recipe Transportability
		8.2 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_09
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	9. 88 Batch Control Concepts, Part 3
		9.1 Production Plans and Schedules
		9.2 Production Information
			9.2.1 Batch-Specific Information
			9.2.2 Common Information
			9.2.3 Batch History
			9.2.4 Batch Reports
		9.3 Allocation and Arbitration
			9.3.1 Allocation
			9.3.2 Arbitration
		9.4 Modes and States
			9.4.1 Modes
			9.4.2 States
		9.5 Exception Handling
		9.6 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_10
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	10. 88 Perspective and Review
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Before SP88
			10.2.1 Purdue Workshop WG4
			10.2.2 NAMUR
			10.2.3 Batch Control Systems
			10.2.4 Computer Integrated Manufacturing
			10.2.5 Purdue Reference Model
		10.3 During SP88
			10.3.1 The Equipment
			10.3.2 The Procedure
			10.3.3 The Formula
			10.3.4 The Recipe
			10.3.5 Production Plans and Schedules
			10.3.6 Production Information
			10.3.7 Arbitration and Allocation
			10.3.8 Modes and States
			10.3.9 Exception Handling
		10.4 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_11
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	11. 88 Control Activities and Functions, Part 1
		11.1 Control Activities
			11.1.1 Control Activity Model
			11.1.2 Information Handling
			11.1.3 Process and Control Engineering
		11.2 Recipe Management
			11.2.1 Manage General Recipes
			11.2.2 Define General Recipe Procedural Elements
			11.2.3 Manage Site Recipes
			11.2.4 Manage Master Recipes
			11.2.5 Define Master Recipe Procedural Elements
		11.3 Production Planning and Scheduling
		11.4 Production Information Management
			11.4.1 Receiving and Storing Batch History Information
			11.4.2 Manipulating Historical Data
			11.4.3 Producing Batch Reports
		11.5 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_12
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	12. 88 Control Activities and Functions, Part 2
		12.1 Process Management
			12.1.1 Manage Batches
			12.1.2 Manage Process Cell Resources
			12.1.3 Collect Batch and Process Information
		12.2 Unit Supervision
			12.2.1 Acquire and Execute Procedural Elements
			12.2.2 Manage Unit Resources
			12.2.3 Collect Batch and Unit Information
		12.3 Process Control
			12.3.1 Execute Equipment Phases
			12.3.2 Execute Basic Control
			12.3.3 Collect Data
		12.4 Personnel and Environmental Protection
		12.5 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_13
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	13. 88 Definitions
		13.1 Definitions
		13.2 Other Definitions
		13.3 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_14
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	14. Further 88 Clarifications
		14.1 Definitions
		14.2 Physical Model
			14.2.1 Modules Revisited
		14.3 Batch Control Concepts
			14.3.1 Modules and Phases
			14.3.2 Equipment Entities and the Purdue Reference Model
			14.3.3 Exception Handling
			14.3.4 Modes and States
			14.3.5 Recipe Operations
			14.3.6 Alternative to Unit Procedures
			14.3.7 The Agitator Problem
			14.3.8 The Common Valve Problem
		14.4 Batch Control Activities
			14.4.1 Recipe Translation
			14.4.2 Executing Procedural Elements
			14.4.3 Recipe Computations
			14.4.4 Operator Interaction
		14.5 Procedure Function Charts
		14.6 A Word About Control Systems
			14.6.1 Data Owner
			14.6.2 Programming Languages
			14.6.3 Displays
		14.7 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_15
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	15. Generic 88 Implementation
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Designing Batch Process Control
			15.2.1 Know Process Design
			15.2.2 Know How to Operate
			15.2.3 Know Modules, Phases
			15.2.4 Know Normal Operations
			15.2.5 Know Exceptions
			15.2.6 Know All There Is to Know
		15.3 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_16
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	16. Role of 95 and Other Things
		16.1 Joining 95 and 88
			16.1.1 Interfaces
			16.1.2 Missing Interfaces
		16.2 The Role of STEP
		16.3 Expanding the Scope of 88
			16.3.1 Why Expand 88
			16.3.2 Features of 88
			16.3.3 Back to 95
		16.4 Fieldbus
			16.4.1 History
			16.4.2 Future for Batch Control
			16.4.3 Control in the Field
			16.4.4 User-Defined Function Blocks
		16.5 Summary
	Bibliography
	Index
1818_indx
	Front Matter
	Table of Contents
	Index
		A
		B
		C
		D
		E
		F
		G
		H
		I
		L
		M
		N
		O
		P
		R
		S
		T
		U
		V
		W
Document Text Contents
Page 1

Batch Control
Systems
Design, Application, and Implementation,
2nd Edition

William M. Hawkins and Thomas G. Fisher

batch front of book copy.qxd 4/24/2006 10:50 PM Page iii

Page 2

Notice
The information presented in this publication is for the general education of the reader.
Because neither the author nor the publisher have any control over the use of the information
by the reader, both the author and the publisher disclaim any and all liability of any kind
arising out of such use. The reader is expected to exercise sound professional judgment in using
any of the information presented in a particular application.

Additionally, neither the author nor the publisher have investigated or considered the affect of
any patents on the ability of the reader to use any of the information in a particular application.
The reader is responsible for reviewing any possible patents that may affect any particular use
of the information presented.

Any references to commercial products in the work are cited as examples only. Neither the
author nor the publisher endorses any referenced commercial product. Any trademarks or trade
names referenced belong to the respective owner of the mark or name. Neither the author nor
the publisher makes any representation regarding the availability of any referenced commercial
product at any time. The manufacturer’s instructions on use of any commercial product must be
followed at all times, even if in conflict with the information in this publication.

Copyright © 2006 ISA – The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society

All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

ISBN-10: 1-55617-967-7
ISBN-13: 978-1-55617-967-9

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISA 67 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12277 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hawkins, William M., 1938-
Batch control systems : design, application, and implementation /
William M. Hawkins and Thomas Fisher.-- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Batch control systems / Thomas G. Fisher
ISBN 1-55617-967-7
1. Process control--Data processing. 2. Process control--Automation.
I. Fisher, Thomas. II. Fisher, Thomas. Batch control systems. III.
Title.
TS156.8.F573 2005
660'.2815--dc22
2005029956

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Page 168

In the discussion that follows, modes and states are applied to basic control instead of
equipment entities and to procedural control instead of procedural elements.

5.7.1 Modes
88.01 does not define the behavior of modes or limit their number. The intent is to
define the names of two or three common modes and provide examples of how they
have been used in practice. The users in SP88 wanted standard mode behavior, but
the vendors had user bases to protect. Even the method for selecting a mode differs
among vendors.

If the mode of a controller is automatic, then the controller may change its mode as
required by conditions. If the mode is manual, then the controller is not allowed to
change to an automatic mode.

Basic Control
Basic control has at least two modes: automatic and manual. Other modes will be
present if the controller can be set by another controller or a remote computer.

Modes select the behaviors of basic control. Automatic mode causes outputs to the
equipment to be determined by the control algorithm. Manual mode causes outputs
to hold their last values.

Modes also select the commands that will be accepted by a controller. Automatic
mode causes control to accept only commands to change the setpoint or mode.
Manual mode adds the possibility of changing the output.

Basic control logic may be used to propagate a mode change to other associated con-
trollers. This makes it possible to lock a set of controllers into automatic mode if one
controller is set to automatic. A set of controllers may be locked or unlocked by pro-
cedural control, so that the mode of procedural control may be propagated to basic
control. Other logic signals, like interlocks, may affect modes as well as states.

The examples so far have been specific, but they are a small subset of the behaviors
that a mode can select in different kinds of basic control. It pays to read the manual of
an unfamiliar device.

Procedural Control
This type of control requires a control entity that executes procedural elements
according to the active paths in the procedure. One way to choose a path is by transi-
tion conditions such as “procedural element complete,” meaning that the procedure
defined by the element is done. When a transition condition associated with an active
procedural element is true, then the next procedural element in the path is started
and the previous element becomes inactive. This is commonly expressed with a
Sequential Function Chart (SFC), as specified in IEC 60848 or 61131.3.

88 Batch Control Concepts, Part 3 149

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Page 169

The procedural modes, with example behavior and command limitations, follow:

• Automatic—Active and true transitions cause a change from one procedural ele-
ment to the next. An operator can not force a transition to be true.

• Semiautomatic—Active and true transitions do not cause a change. An operator
may be able to enable a change or may be able to turn off the active element and
turn on another somewhere else in the path. Direct control of the elements can
cause serious problems if the operator did not understand all of the training.

• Manual—Active and true transitions do not cause a change. An operator can force
transitions to be true. When a transition is forced, it forces a change to the next
active element. Direct control of the elements may be possible.

Again, these are examples of a wider range of possible behaviors. You will find proce-
dural control that replaces Semi-automatic with Single Step mode. Transitions do not
cause a change until the Start command is given. Some people call Hold a mode.
Hold causes active elements to go to a safe state right now. Single and Semi modes
wait for active elements to finish. SP88 treated Hold as a state, as discussed below.

5.7.2 States
Basic control and procedural control may have states. A control state defines the
desired condition of an equipment entity. States are changed by commands or by the
completion of a process function. Each control state has an algorithm that runs while
the state is active. The algorithm is independent of other states’ algorithms, but may
depend upon other states to set up the conditions for it to run properly. In the drill
press example, the Drilling state will fail to perform its function if previous states did
not include Running and Lowering.

The entity that causes states to change along directed paths and executes the active
state algorithms is usually modeled as a finite state machine. The machine has states,
transitions, transition conditions, paths, inputs, outputs, and commands. Each state
has one entrance path and one exit path that leads to one or more transitions. There
is only one transition that controls the path between two states. The active state may
have several algorithms, but only one of them is active. The algorithm may use a
subset of inputs or simply set the outputs. The outputs are a subset of all of the
machine’s outputs. The transition condition is either true or false. Its value may be
calculated from a subset of inputs and commands. If the state that precedes the tran-
sition is active and the transition condition is true, then the preceding state becomes
inactive and the following state becomes active. More than one state may be active in
the machine at one time on parallel paths. More detail may be found in IEC 60848,
which standardizes the rules for an SFC.

150 Chapter 9

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Page 336

323
Index Term Links

common, 75 146 184 205

exclusive-use, 147 207

shared-use, 75 147 213

S

safety, 57 133 172 201 218 226 228

sensor, 104

sequence, 2 10 77 85 152

sequential, 48

SFC, 50 149 151 158 224 246

simulation, 290

site, 1 81 93 95 213

software, 61 162 250

SOP, 54 289

Spaceman Spiff, 250

state, 148 150 213 235

and modes, 148 232 236 308

machine, 150 152 233 235

transition, 150 152 233

statistical, 13 79

step, 85 237

STEP, 301

T

terminology, 90 115 159 253 303

timing, 126

Tower Bridge, 55

tracing, 183

tracking, 174

training, 60 150 173 191 227 290

transport header, 70

turtles, 224

U

Uhlig, 79 86

unit, 81 95 118 122 131 159 214

224

procedure, 112 136 138 214 238

recipe, 189 214

storage, 221 300

supervision, 194 214

Page 337

324
Index Term Links
user, 35 48 53 86 149 217 237

238 247 253 261 303 311 312

interface, 115 232

V

validation, 33 86 164 174

W

watchdog, 57 228 230

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Similer Documents

Aplikasi Sistem Pengambilan Nomor Antrian

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Claxton Guy - Aprender El Reto Del Aprendizaje Continuo (Scan)

Addressing Liability Issues in Consumer-Directed Personal Assistance Services

Metacognition reconsidered

A serotonin-dependent deoxyribozyme that uses light to

Personal injury compensation legislation